Bluebook Basics for Summer Jobs

For a guide to library copies and materials geared toward practitioners, see our basic guide to The Bluebook. This guide focuses exclusively on the 18th edition of the Bluebook for practitioners and offers techniques for its use.

There are a number of good reasons to learn how to use the Bluebook effectively. The Bluebooking Checklist suggests how to conduct a "Bluebooking" project in the practice setting. Other tips for Bluebooking will help you complete the task in a minimal amount of time.

Getting to know the structure of the Bluebook will result in the most efficient use of this complex citation manual. The Bluepages are very short and should be read at least once before your first Bluebooking assignment. However, there may be local citation rules or even local citation manuals that may trump the Bluebook.

Remember that the Bluebook provides complex rules for typefaces, abbreviations, capitalization, short citation forms, and even page numbers and pinpoint cites for each type of authority. Signals indicate to the reader how cited authorities relate to the text. Rules for specific types of authority provide details for cases, statutes, etc. Finally, note that the Bluebook allows very limited uses of electronic sources.


Reasons to Learn How to Use the Bluebook (1)

  • The Bluebook is the standard citation manual for legal publications. Thus it provides uniformity of citations across all jurisdictions.
  • Proper application of the Bluebook:
    • helps readers locate the authorities cited in a work;
    • allows readers to check the weight and persuasiveness of a source;
    • shows the type and degree of support of propositions by the authorities cited;
    • shows that a document was well researched and gives credit to others for their ideas.
  • Finally, proper application of the Bluebook reflects on the quality of a publication and of the firm in general.

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Bluebooking Checklist (1)

  • Read through the Bluepages at least once before you start your first assignment. They are only 20 pages out of the 400+ pages in the Bluebook.
  • Highlight all citations. This will ensure that you do not miss a one in a large document.
  • If you are Bluebooking for someone else, ask how much you are expected to do.
    • Just a format check?
    • Check numbers and dates?
    • Does the person prefer italics or underlining where there is a choice?
  • Check Jurisdiction-Specific Citation Rules & Style Guides, for references to court rules on citation as well as any law firm conventions.
  • Use the Quick Reference: Court Documents and Legal Memoranda to locate the appropriate rule for the type of authority cited. The rules by type of authority govern what must be included in the citation.
  • Don’t forget to include page numbers and pinpoint citations to the exact location within the authority that relates to the proposition made in the text. Most courts require pinpoint citations.
  • Verify that all short citation forms and id., supra, infra and hereinafter are used correctly.
  • Check signals carefully.

Other Tips for Bluebooking (1)

  • If you are Bluebooking for someone else and need to make changes, or if you encounter a particularly tough citation when Bluebooking your own work, write the number of the applicable rule(s) on the margin near the citation. That way if you are challenged or if the cite later looks strange to you, you can refer to the rules quickly.
  • Work swiftly and methodically. Don’t stop at every citation that is problematic to fill in gaps such as page numbers. Make one trip to the library to do that.
  • Mark any skipped citations by using margin notes or adhesive flags, so that you can go back to them quickly.
  • Be consistent: Use italics or underlining when given a choice but don't mix the two in one document.

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The Structure of the Bluebook*

*Only those sections that are most helpful to practitioners are included here.

  • Quick Reference: Court Documents and Legal Memoranda
    • Located on the inside back cover, this table is the starting point for "Bluebooking" a source.
    • The examples are for illustration only and will not cover all of the intricacies of citing specific sources. When in doubt, follow the examples within a rule rather than those listed in the quick reference.
  • Bluepages
  • General Rules of Citation and Style (Rules 1-9)
  • Specific Rules for Different Types of Authority: Rules 10-21.
    Each rule generally includes:
    • a sample entry highlighting the elements of the citation
    • basic citation form
    • if applicable, how to choose the proper citation form
    • explanations of the elements of the citation
    • special citation forms
    • short forms
  • Tables of Jurisdictions and Abbreviations
    • Table 1 covers U.S. jurisdictions, federal followed by the states and territories.
    • Tables 2 & 3 cover foreign and international jurisdictions.
    • For each jurisdiction, authorities are listed as follows: case law sources, statutory materials, regulatory materials, official administrative reports or publications.
  • Index
    • The Bluebook index is excellent! When in doubt, search in the index to locate the appropriate rule.

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Bluepages

Typefaces (rule B.13): Fortunately, practitioner rules for typefaces are quite simpler than those for law journals. As a quick rule:

Underline or Italicize in citations:

  • Full and short case names, including procedural phrases introducing case names;
  • Titles of books and articles;
  • Titles of legislative materials;
  • Introductory signals;
  • Explanatory phrases introducing subsequent case history;
  • Words and phrases introducing related authority; and,
  • Internal cross references.

In addition, underline or italicize the following if they appear within the text instead of a citation:

  • Titles of publications;
  • Words that were italicized in the original source of a quotation;
  • Words for emphasis;
  • Any other words that would otherwise be italicized, such as uncommon foreign words.

There is a handy chart that identifies key differences between journal citation and Bluepages citation format on page 24.

Examples of the typefaces rule

Abbreviations and Capitalization

Abbreviations

  • Generally, follow rule 6:
    • While the Bluebook provides dozens of abbreviations, those that are not provided are discouraged.
    • Usage may determine whether a term or phrase is abbreviated. For example, United States is never abbreviated in case names but may be abbreviated for other purposes. Consult the rules for specific types of authority to determine whether an abbreviation is appropriate.
    • Note special rules regarding abbreviations that have single capitals, e.g.
      B.U. L. Rev. instead of B. U. L. Rev. Use Table 13 to abbreviate periodical titles.
  • For case names in citations, abbreviate any word listed in Table 6 and geographical units listed in Table 10 unless the geographical unit is a party.
  • When using case names in textual sentences, only abbreviate well known acronyms, such as CIA, FBI, etc. and the following eight words: &, Ass'n, Bros., Co., Corp., Inc., Ltd., and No.
  • Other tables cover abbreviations for other groups of words or types of materials, see Rule 6.1.
  • Examples of abbreviations rule

Capitalization

  • Generally, follow rule 8:
    • Always capitalize headings and titles: initial word, the word immediately following a colon and all other words except articles and conjunctions/prepositions of four or fewer letters.
    • Other words commonly used in legal writing may be capitalized depending on usage. For example, act, court, constitution, federal, etc.
  • In textual sentences, the following Bluepages rules also apply:
    • Capitalize "court" when referring to the court that will be receiving the document. (Rule B10.6.1)
    • Capitalize party designations when referring to the parties in the current action (e.g. Plaintiff, Defendant, etc.) (Rule B10.6.2)
    • Capitalize titles of court documents submitted to the court in the current action.
  • Examples of the capitalization rule

Jurisdiction-Specific Citation Rules & Style Guides

Local citation rules from the courts include the preferred source to be cited, whether parallel or public domain citations are required, and even whether there is a local citation manual to be applied. In addition, there may be firm-specific practices that you must apply.

There are various ways of learning what local citation rules apply:

  • Check Bluepages Table BT.2 for rules that apply in a particular jurisdiction.
  • ASK if there are any firm-wide practices or procedures involving citation.
  • ASK whether there are any unwritten practices or preferences of the court where you are submitting your document.

If there are no local citation rules about preferred sources, the Bluebook rules would apply:

  • Under each type of primary authority in tables 1-3, one finds the following notation:
    • "Cite to [preferred source], if therein; otherwise cite to [other sources, in order of preference]"
  • One must cite to the preferred source unless the authority is not available in that source.
  • The rules for different types of authority also indicate the order of preference when multiple sources exist.
  • For books, journals, and other secondary materials, the preferred source is the original print source. However, if the item may be found in PDF format with the same pagination as the original, this can be used as a substitute for the print source.

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Short Citation Forms

  • The Bluebook uses the phrase "short citation forms" to refer to two different sets of rules that serve the same purpose.
  • Short citation forms help save space in a publication while providing sufficient information to help the reader locate the source.
  • Short citation forms within the general rules refer to internal cross references such as id., supra, infra, and hereinafter
  • Short citation forms within the rules for specific types of materials explain how to cite a source after it has been cited once. There is a handy table at page 64 of the Bluebook noting the exact rule for the short form of specific types of materials.

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Id. (Rule 4.1)

  • Id. is the most misused short citation form.
  • Use id. when citing the immediately preceding authority within the same footnote
  • Use id. when citing the immediately preceding footnote but only if the preceding footnote has only one authority.
  • Use "id. at" only with page numbers.
  • Otherwise, use id. plus a section/paragraph symbol and the appropriate number.
  • Use id. for cases five or fewer times in a row. After the fifth straight instance, one must once again use the short citation form of the case.
  • Examples of the id. rule

back to short citation forms

Supra (Rules 3.5 & 4.2)

  • Supra is used as an internal cross-reference to guide the reader between parts of a document, whether text or footnotes. (Rule 3.5)
  • You may combine supra with note, part, p., or pp. to refer to footnotes, parts, or pages within the same piece.
  • Use supra when the authority has already been cited in full, and add the short form for that authority. (Rule 4.2)
  • Supra may be used alone with the short form, when referring to authority within the same footnote when id. would not be appropriate.
  • May combine supra with signals.
  • Do not use pp. as part of the short form for any authority.
  • Do not use supra with cases, statutes, constitutions, legislative materials other than hearings, restatements, model codes, or regulations UNLESS the name of the authority is extremely long.
  • Examples of the supra rule

back to short citation forms

Infra (Rule 3.5)

  • Infra is used as an internal cross-reference to guide the reader between parts of a document, whether text or footnotes.
  • Use infra to refer to discussion or footnote content after the current footnote or text.
  • Always combine infra with note, part, p., or pp. to refer to footnotes, parts, or pages within the same piece.
  • May combine infra with signals
  • Do not use infra for citations to authority.
  • Examples of the infra rule

back to short citation forms

hereinafter (Rule 4.2)

  • Use when the short form prescribed by the type of authority may be cumbersome or confusing to the reader.
  • Hereinafter allows the writer to establish a special shortened form to avoid confusion.
  • Hereinafter is not capitalized or italicized.
  • The entire reference appears in square brackets: [hereinafter special shortened form]
  • Follow the typeface rule given for the short form of the authority.
  • Do not use hereinafter with cases, statutes, constitutions, legislative materials other than hearings, restatements, model codes, or regulations UNLESS the name of the authority is extremely long.
  • Examples of the hereinafter rule

back to short citation forms

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Page Numbers (Rule 3.2) and Pinpoint Citations (Bluepages Rule 5.1.2)

  • Provide the first page where a cited authority appears within a source even if it is the first page of the source.
  • Do not use the abbreviations "p." or "pp." except with supra or infra.
  • Unless otherwise indicated by another rule, only add "at" preceding a page number if it may be confused with another part of a citation. In that instance, use a comma and space before "at".
  • Always retain the last two digits, but otherwise shorten the second number in a span of pages as appropriate
  • A pincite or pinpoint citation identifies where specific material appears within a source. It should be used even if the material appears on the first page of the authority.
  • When referring to a span of pages/chapters/sections, give the numbers separated by a hyphen or dash, except when the use of such a symbol may be ambiguous.
  • Examples of the page numbers rule
  • Examples of the pinpoint rule

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Signals (Bluepages Rule B4 & Rule 1.2)

  • Signals are used to indicate how a cited authority relates to a proposition in the text:.
    • Supportive signals--no signal, e.g., accord, see, see also, cf.
    • Comparative signals--compare...[and], compare...[with]
    • Contradictory signals--contra, but see, but cf.
    • Background signal--see generally
  • Please read carefully the definitions of the different signals.
  • Multiple signals (rule 1.3) should be presented in the following order: supportive, comparative, contradictory, background.
    • Group signals of the same basic type, separating them with semi-colons.
    • Capitalize only the first signal in a string of signals of the same type.
  • All signals are italicized.
  • Notice punctuation: "e.g.," (periods after each letter, only signal to be followed by a comma), cf. (period after both letters)
  • Examples of the signals rule

Order of authorities within signals (Rule 1.4)

  • Authorities within each signal are separated by semicolons.
  • If an authority is more helpful than another within the same signal, it should be cited first.
  • Otherwise, authorities should be cited in the following order: constitutions; statutes; treaties and other international agreements; cases; legislative materials; administrative & executive materials; resolutions, decisions, and regulations of intergovernmental organizations; records, briefs, and petitions, secondary materials.
  • When string citing cases, federal cases are listed before state cases. State cases are listed by jurisdiction in alphabetical order.
  • Cases are further arranged within the jurisdiction by court (highest to lowest), and within the same court by date (most recent first).
  • There are similar rules for the order of authorities for statutes, regulations, and other materials.

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Rules for Specific Types of Authority

Cases (Rule 10)

  • State cases--General guidelines of choice of source (Rule 10.3.1):
    • If you are citing a state court case in a document filed with that state court, use the official reporter, followed a parallel citation to a regional reporter.
    • If you are citing a state court case in a document to any court other than that state court, provide an official public domain citation (if available) as well as a parallel citation to the regional reporter , if available.
    • If the case is not yet available in any of the sources listed in table 1, cite to sources in the following order of preference: unofficial reporter, Lexis or Westlaw, a service, slip opinion, Internet source, or a newspaper. (Rule 10.3.1(b)).
    • Note that approximately 17 states have public domain citations (aka neutral citation forms), which must be added as additional parallel citations. See the current list at http://www.aallnet.org/committee/citation/
  • Federal cases--Choice of source (table 1):
    • Follow table 1 for each court.
    • Parallel citations are not necessary for U.S. Supreme Court cases.
    • If the case is not yet available in any of the sources listed in table 1, cite to sources in the following order of preference: unofficial reporter, Lexis or Westlaw, a service, slip opinion, Internet source, or a newspaper. (Rule 10.3.1(b)).
  • Basic citation form
    • Parties' names (see typeface and abbreviation rules)
    • Reporter volume number
    • Reporter name (abbreviated)
    • First page of the case in the volume
    • Pinpoint cite
    • Parenthesis: Court (abbreviated), unless apparent from the reporter and Date.
  • Include a parenthetical to indicate the weight of authority, if needed.
  • Include explanatory phrases introducing prior or subsequent case history as needed (see typeface rules and table 9 for abbreviations).
  • Short citation form: Use one party's name, italicized or underlined, followed by a short form of volume/reporter/page (rule P.4).

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Statutes (Rule 12)

  • Choice of source:
    • In order of preference: cite to codified form (official or unofficial code), session law (official or unofficial), or secondary sources, only if a code or session law is not available.
    • Cite to the session law when when that statute is codified in scattered sections, to indicate the historical fact of enactment, or if the language in the current code materially differs from the sesion law, but only if the relevant title has not been enacted into positive law. Codes indicate which titles have been enacted into positive law.
  • Basic citation form--codified statutes
    • title, chapter, or volume
    • name of codification (abbreviated according to table 1)
    • section or other subdivision
    • date (from main volume, pocket part, or both)
  • Basic citation form--session laws
    • name of the statute
    • public law, chapter, or act number
    • volume of the session laws
    • name of the session laws publication (abbreviated, according to table 1)
    • first page of the statute in session laws
    • year
  • Note special rules for citing the Internal Revenue Code, ordinances, rules of evidence and procedure, uniform acts, and model codes.
  • Short citation form: see Rule 12.9.

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Constitutions (Rule 11)

The only short form acceptable is the use of id.

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Legislative Materials (Rule 13)

  • Choice of source: use the official version in PDF format, otherwise access the official version via microfiche. For information on sources of official legislative materials, see the Federal Legislative History Research Guide.
  • There are a large amount of materials generated by the Congress, such as committee hearings, bills, and committee reports. See Rule 13.1 for sample citation forms for legislative materials. See also the typeface rules.
  • Use Table 9 for abbreviations for legislative documents.

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Administrative and Executive materials (Rule 14)

  • Choice of source: Like statutes, agency regulations are cited to codifications, if possible. Otherwise, cite to the administrative register
  • Basic citation form--codification:
    • title number
    • codification (abbreviated)
    • section number
    • date
  • Basic citation form--register
    • volume number
    • register (abbreviated)
    • page number
    • date
  • Note separate rules for citing administrative decisions, federal taxation and SEC materials, and executive materials.
  • Short forms for regulations: See Bluebook Rule 14.10

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Books (Rule 15)

  • Basic citation form--Book:
    • Volume number (if multi-volume work)
    • Full name of the author
      • two authors are cited in full, using & between names
      • more than two are cited by first author, adding et. al. for additional authors.
    • Title of the Work (see typeface and capitalization rules)
    • section, paragraph, or page number (pinpoint cite)
    • parenthesis containing edition number (if applicable) and year of publication
  • Basic citation form--Contribution within a book:
    • Volume number (if multi-volume work)
    • Full name of the contributing author
    • Title of the Contribution (see typeface and capitalization rules)
    • in (see typeface rule)
    • Title of the Work (see typeface and capitalization rules)
    • section, paragraph, or page number where shorter work starts
    • pinpoint cite
    • parenthesis containing full name of editor and/or edition number (if applicable) and year of publication
  • Note that certain works are covered by special citation rules: dictionaries, legal encyclopedias, and certain other works
  • Short citation forms: Use id. or the author's last name along with the appropriate supra form.

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Periodical Materials (Rule 16)

  • Basic citation form--consecutively paginated journal:
    • Full name of the author
      • two authors are cited in full, using & between names
      • more than two are cited by first author, using et. al.
    • Title of the Article (see capitalization rules),
    • volume number
    • Title of the Journal (see abbreviation rules)
    • first page of the article
    • pinpoint cite
    • year of publication
  • Basic citation form--non-consecutively paginated journal:
    • Full name of the author (ordinary type)
      • two authors are cited in full, using & between names
      • more than two are cited by first author, using et. al.
    • Title of the Article (see capitalization rules),
    • Title of the Journal (see abbreviation rules)
    • month and year OR month, day and year of article,
    • "at" followed by first page of the article
    • pinpoint cite
  • Abbreviations for many legal periodicals may be found in table 13.

Court and Litigation Documents (Bluepages Rule B10)

  • Abbreviate the title of the material according to Table BT.1.
  • Enclose the reference in parentheses.
  • If the reference is in a sentence, do not use an abbreviation as it is likely to confuse the reader.
  • If the reference follows a complete sentence, use a period inside the parentheses.
  • Semicolons may be used to group citations.
  • Use "at" only with page numbers.
  • Otherwise, use a section OR paragraph symbol and the appropriate number.
  • Hereinafter is a proper short form for record materials.

Citing a type of authority not explicitly discussed in the Bluebook

  • The Bluebook recommends following an analogous form of authority.
  • If applicable, consult rule 17 for unpublished and forthcoming materials.
  • When all else fails, check to see if someone else has cited the authority or a similar authority. Limit the search to journals published by the schools that author the Bluebook (Harvard, Columbia, University of Pennsylvania, Yale).

Citing Electronic Sources

While the Bluebook has recently somewhat relaxed the rules regarding electronic sources, the editors of the Bluebook still frown upon the use of electronic sources for many types of materials.

The rule "requires the use and citation of traditional printed sources, unless (1) the information cited is unavailable in a traditional printed source; or (2) a copy of the source cannot be located because it is so obscure that it is practically unavailable." (emphasis in the original).

Commercial Electronic Databases such as Lexis and Westlaw (rule 18.1):

  • Both services, along with other selected electronic databases, are considered to be reliable and authoritative.
  • Bluebook rule 18 requires citation according to the traditional rules with the addition of designations to indicate that the electronic resource was used (Lexis, WL).

Internet (rule 18.2):

  • Elements of Internet citation:
    • Information about the authority cited
      • See rules 10-17, 19-21 for the type of authority
    • "Available at"
      • Use available at when providing the Internet address as an additional source (like a parallel cite) for information that is otherwise difficult to locate.
      • Do not use when the Internet is the only source for the information
    • The author or title, as they appear in the title bar of the page
    • The URL
      • Long enough for the user to find the document being cited, but not too long
    • Date
      • If the Internet site is provided as a parallel cite, use the date of the traditional source.
      • If the Internet is the only source for the information, use dates in order of preference: date of authority itself, date when page was last visited.
      • Generally, the date precedes the URL for online periodicals, but otherwise follows the URL.
  • Examples of the Internet rule

(1) Adapted in part from Cite-Checker: A Hands-On Guide to Learning Citation Form Reference Desk KF 245 B68 2001) :

Page maintained by Raquel Ortiz
Last updated: June 2008