The Bluebook for Law Journal Members

For a guide to library copies and materials geared toward law students, see our basic guide to The Bluebook. This guide focuses exclusively on the Bluebook and offers techniques for law journal use. Please note that your journal editor is the final authority for your journal's specific practices.

There are a number of good reasons to learn how to use the Bluebook effectively. The "Bluebooking Checklist" provided here will lists all the steps needed to verify the format of the authorities provided in a law journal article or note.

Getting to know the structure of the Bluebook will result in the most efficient use of this complex citation manual. Skim the General Rules of Citation and Style at least once before starting your first tech checking assignment. The Bluebook lists a preferred source for each type of authority; consult the appropriate table or rule to verify that the source cited is the preferred source. The preferred source is the one that you must locate as you gather sources to verify citations.

Remember that the Bluebook provides complex rules for
typefaces, abbreviations, capitalization, short citation forms, and even page numbers and pinpoint cites for each type of authority. Signals indicate to the reader how cited authorities relate to the text. Rules for specific types of authority provide details for cases, statutes, etc. Finally, note that the Bluebook allows very limited uses of electronic sources.

Four Reasons to Learn How to Use the Bluebook

  • The Bluebook is the standard citation manual for scholarly legal publications.
  • The Bluebook provides for uniformity of citations throughout a legal publication.
  • Proper application of the Bluebook allows readers to locate the authorities cited in a work.
  • Proper application of the Bluebook reflects on the quality of a scholarly legal publication.

top

Bluebooking Checklist

top

The Structure of the Bluebook*

*Only those sections that are most helpful to journal members are included here.

Quick Reference: Law Review Footnotes

  • Located on the inside front cover, this table is the starting point for "bluebooking" a source.
  • The examples are for illustration only and will not cover all of the intricacies of citing specific sources. When in doubt, follow the examples within a rule rather than those listed in the quick reference.

General Rules of Citation and Style: Rules 1-9

  • These rules provide for standards of citation and style to be used throughout legal writing. This is where one will find rules about typefaces, abbreviations, capitalization, signals, and short citation forms (id., supra, infra, and hereinafter).
  • Specific Rules for Different Types of Authority: Rules 10-21. Each rule generally includes:
    • a sample entry highlighting the elements of the citation
    • basic citation form
    • if applicable, how to choose the proper citation form
    • explanations of the elements of the citation
    • special citation forms
    • short citation forms
  • Tables of Jurisdictions and Abbreviations
    • Table 1 covers U.S. jurisdictions. Tables 2 & 3 cover foreign and international jurisdictions.
    • For each jurisdiction, authorities are listed as follows: case law sources, statutory materials, regulatory materials, official administrative reports or publications.
  • Index
    • The Bluebook index is excellent! When in doubt, search in the index to locate the appropriate rule.

top

Preferred sources

  • Under each type of primary authority in the tables, one finds the following notation:
    • "Cite to [preferred source], if therein; otherwise cite to [other sources, in order of preference]"
  • One must cite to the preferred source unless the authority is not available in that source.
  • The rules for different types of authority also indicate the order of preference when multiple sources exist.
  • For books, journals, and other secondary materials, the preferred source is the original print source. However, if the item may be found in PDF format with the same pagination as the original, this can be used as a substitute for the print source. Consult a reference librarian if you have questions about the reliability of a PDF document.

top

Short Citation Forms

  • The Bluebook uses the phrase "short citation forms" to refer to two different sets of rules that serve the same purpose.
  • Short citation forms help save space in a publication while providing sufficient information to help the reader locate the source.
  • Short citation forms within the general rules refer to id., supra,and hereinafter. Although infra is used for internal cross-references, it serves the same purpose as short citation forms.
  • Short citation forms within the rules for specific types of materials explain how to cite a source after it has been cited once.

top

Id. (Rule 4.1)

  • Id. is the most misused short citation form.
  • Use id. when citing the immediately preceding authority within the same footnote
  • Use id. when citing the immediately preceding footnote but only if the preceding footnote has only one authority.
  • Use "id. at" only with page numbers.
  • Otherwise, use id. plus a section/paragraph symbol and the appropriate number.
  • Use id. for cases five or fewer times in a row. After the fifth straight instance, one must once again use the full citation of the case.
  • Examples of the id. rule

back to short citation forms

Supra (Rules 3.5 & 4.2)

  • Supra is used as an internal cross-reference to guide the reader between parts of a document, whether text or footnotes.
  • Use supra when the authority has already been cited in full, and add the short form for that authority.
  • Supra may be used alone with the short form, when referring to authority within the same footnote when id. would not be appropriate.
  • May combine supra with note, part, p., or pp. to refer to footnotes, parts, or pages within the same piece.
  • May combine supra signals.
  • Do not use pp. as part of the short form for any authority.
  • Do not use supra with cases, statutes, constitutions, legislative materials other than hearings, restatements, model codes, or regulations UNLESS the name of the authority is extremely long.
  • Examples of the supra rule

back to short citation forms

Infra (Rule 3.5)

  • Infra is used as an internal cross-reference to guide the reader between parts of a document, whether text or footnotes.
  • Use infra to refer to discussion or footnote content after the current footnote or text.
  • Always combine infra with note, part, p., or pp. to refer to footnotes, parts, or pages within the same piece.
  • May combine infra with signals
  • Do not use infra for citations to authority.
  • Examples of the infra rule

back to short citation forms

hereinafter (Rule 4.2)

  • Use when the short form prescribed by the type of authority may be cumbersome or confusing to the reader.
  • Hereinafter allows the writer to establish a special shortened form to avoid confusion.
  • Hereinafter is not capitalized or italicized.
  • The entire reference appears in square brackets: [hereinafter special shortened form]
  • Follow the typeface rule given for the short form of the authority.
  • Do not use hereinafter with cases, statutes, constitutions, legislative materials other than hearings, restatements, model codes, or regulations UNLESS the name of the authority is extremely long.
  • Examples of the hereinafter rule

back to short citation forms

top

Typefaces (Rule 2)

  • The Bluebook uses ordinary type, italics and LARGE and SMALL caps.
  • Typefaces in Citations (rule 2.1): Always use this rule for authorities within footnotes except when textual sentences appear in footnotes. See rules for specific types of materials for usage of different typefaces.
  • Typefaces in Textual Material (rule 2.2): Use this rule when an authority appears within the main text or in a textual sentence within a footnote. All references to authority in textual material should be in ordinary type except case names and titles of publications/speeches/articles, which are all italicized.
  • Italics may also be used for emphasis (rule 7).
  • Examples of the typefaces rule

top

Abbreviations (Rule 6)

  • While the Bluebook provides dozens of abbreviations, those that are not provided are discouraged.
  • Usage may determine whether a term or phrase is abbreviated. For example, United States is abbreviated when used as an adjective but not in case names. Consult the rules for specific types of authority to determine whether an abbreviation is appropriate.
  • The most complicated rules are for citing cases.
  • Examples of the abbreviations rule

top

Capitalization (Rule 8)

  • Always capitalize headings and titles: initial word, the word immediately following a colon and all other words except articles and conjunctions/prepositions of four or fewer letters, unless they are the initial word or the word immediately following a colon.
  • Other words commonly used in legal writing may be capitalized depending on usage. For example, act, court, constitution, federal, etc.
  • Examples of the capitalization rule

top

Subdivisions: Volume, Pages, Footnotes (Rule 3)

  • Always identify the separately paginated volume, part or supplement in addition to identifying the pages where the material appears. (rule 3.1)
  • Provide the first page where a cited authority appears within a source.
  • Use a pinpoint citation to indicate where specific material appears within a source, even if it appears on the first page of the authority.
  • Do not use the abbreviations "p." or "pp." except with supra or infra.
  • Unless otherwise indicated by another rule, only add "at" preceding a page number if it may be confused with another part of a citation. In that instance, use a comma and space before "at".
  • Always retain the last two digits, but otherwise shorten the second number in a span of pages as appropriate.
  • When referring to a span of pages/chapters/sections, give the numbers separated by a hyphen or dash, except when the use of such a symbol may be ambiguous.
  • Examples of the page numbers rule
  • Examples of the pinpoint rule

top

Signals (Rules 1.2-1.4)

  • Signals are used to indicate how a cited authority relates to a proposition in the text. The types of signals are:
    • Supportive signals--no signal, e.g., accord, see, see also, cf.
    • Comparative signals--compare...[and], compare...[with]
    • Contradictory signals--contra, but see, but cf.
    • Background signal--see generally
  • Please read carefully the definitions of the different signals. (Rule 1.2)
    • For example, the signal See is used when the cited authority clearly supports the proposition. The ALWD Citation Manual does not require a signal in this instance, but the Bluebook does!
  • Multiple signals (rule 1.3) should be presented in the following order: supportive, comparative, contradictory, background.
    • Group signals of the same basic type, separating them with semi-colons.
    • Capitalize only the first signal in a string of signals of the same type.
  • All signals are italicized.
  • Notice punctuation: "e.g.," (periods after each letter, only signal to be followed by a comma), cf. (period after both letters)
  • Examples of the signals rule

Order of authorities within signals (Rule 1.4)

  • Authorities within each signal are separated by semicolons.
  • If an authority is more helpful or authoritative than another within the same signal, it should be cited first.
  • Otherwise, authorities should be cited in the following order: constitutions; statutes; treaties and other international agreements; cases; legislative materials; administrative & executive materials; resolutions, decisions, and regulations of intergovernmental organizations; records, briefs, and petitions, secondary materials; cross-references to the author's own materials in text or footnotes.
  • Within each type of authority, multiple authorities are cited in the order prescribed in Rule 1.4.

top

Rules for Specific Types of Authority

Choice of source and abbreviations

Cases (Rule 10)

  • Choice of source:
    • If the case is not yet available in any of the sources listed in table 1, cite to sources in the following order of preference: public domain citation, widely used commercial databases (Lexis or Westlaw, rule 18.1.1), a looseleaf service, a slip opinion, an Internet source, or a newspaper.
  • Basic citation form
    • Parties' names (abbreviated using tables 6 & 11)
    • Official public domain citation, if available (see table 1)
    • Reporter volume number
    • Reporter name (abbreviated using table 1)
    • First page of the case in the volume
    • Pinpoint cite
    • Court (abbreviated), unless apparent from the reporter
    • Date or year
  • Include a parenthetical to indicate the weight of authority, if needed. (rule 10.6)
  • Provide the entire subsequent history when citing a case in full, but see rule for caveats. (rule 10.7)
  • Typeface:
    • In citations: use ordinary type, even when the case name is part of an article title.
    • In textual sentences: use italics when using the case name.
    • Procedural phrases are always italicized
  • Short citation form: Italicize one party's name, if unambiguous, followed by a short form of volume/reporter/page.
    • Use id. with short form for cases five or fewer times in a row.
    • Never use supra unless the case name is very long.

top

Statutes (Rule 12)

  • Choice of source:
    • The order of preference for citing statutes: official code, unofficial code, official session laws, unofficial session laws, widely used commercial databases (Westlaw or Lexis), looseleaf services, Internet sources, newspapers.
    • Cite to the session laws when the statute is codified in scattered sections, to indicate the historical fact of enactment, or when not yet codified.
  • Basic citation form--codified statutes
    • title, chapter, or volume
    • name of codification (abbreviated according to table 1)
    • section or other subdivision
    • date (from main volume, pocket part, or both)
  • Basic citation form--session laws
    • name of the statute
    • public law, chapter, or act number
    • volume of the session laws
    • name of the session laws publication (abbreviated, according to table 1)
    • first page of the statute in session laws
    • year
  • Note special rules for citing the Internal Revenue Code, ordinances, rules of evidence and procedure, uniform acts, model codes, restatements, standards, sentencing guidelines, and ABA ethics codes, rules, and opinions.
  • Typeface: Ordinary type
  • Short citation form: see table on page 113 of the Bluebook.

top

Legislative Materials (Rule 13)

  • Choice of source: use the official version in PDF format via GPO Access or Thomas, or access the official version via microfiche. For further details see Federal Legislative History Research Guide.
  • There are a large amount of materials generated by the Congress, such as committee hearings, bills, and committee reports. See pages 114 & 115 of the Bluebook for sample citation forms for legislative materials.
  • Use table 9 for abbreviations for legislative documents.

top

Administrative and Executive materials (Rule 14)

  • Choice of source: Agency regulations are cited to the administrative code, if possible. Otherwise, cite to the administrative register.
  • Agency regulations basic citation form to administrative code:
    • title number
    • codification (abbreviated according to table 1)
    • section number
    • date
  • Agency regulations basic citation form to administrative register:
    • volume number
    • register (abbreviated according to table 1)
    • page number
    • date
  • Note separate rules for citing administrative decisions, federal taxation and SEC materials, executive materials, and patents.
  • Short forms for regulations: See Bluebook page 129

top

Books (Rule 15)

  • Basic citation form--Book:
    • Volume number (if multi-volume work)
    • FULL NAME OF THE AUTHOR (SMALL caps)
      • two authors are cited in full, using the ampersand (&) between names
      • more than two are cited by first author, using et. al.
    • TITLE OF THE WORK (see capitalization rules, SMALL caps)
    • section, paragraph, or page number (pinpoint cite)
    • parenthesis containing edition number (if applicable) and year of publication
  • Basic citation form--Contribution within a book:
    • Volume number (if multi-volume work)
    • Full name of the contributing author (ordinary type)
    • Title of the Contribution (see capitalization rules, italicized),
    • in (italicized)
    • TITLE OF THE WORK (see capitalization rules, SMALL caps)
    • section, paragraph, or page number where shorter work starts
    • pinpoint cite
    • parenthesis containing full name of editor, edition number (if applicable) and year of publication
  • Note that certain works are covered by special citation rules: legal dictionaries, legal encyclopedias, and certain other works
  • Short citation form for entire book: Use id. or the author's last name along with the appropriate supra form.
  • There is a separate short citation form for contributions.

top

Periodical Articles (Rule 16)

  • Basic citation form--consecutively paginated journal:
    • Full name of the author (ordinary type)
      • two authors are cited in full, using the ampersand (&) between names
      • more than two are cited by first author, using et. al.
    • Title of the Article (see capitalization rules, italicized),
    • volume number
    • TITLE OF THE JOURNAL (abbreviated, SMALL caps)
    • first page of the article
    • pinpoint cite
    • year of publication
  • Basic citation form--non-consecutively paginated journal:
    • Full name of the author (ordinary type)
      • two authors are cited in full, using the ampersand (&) between names
      • more than two are cited by first author, using et. al.
    • Title of the Article (see capitalization rules, italicized),
    • TITLE OF THE JOURNAL (abbreviated, SMALL caps),
    • month/ season and year OR month, day and year of article,
    • "at" followed by first page of the article
    • pinpoint cite
  • Abbreviations for many legal periodicals may be found in table 13.
  • For non-legal periodicals, you may construct a suitable abbreviation using the abbreviations provided in table 13. Thus, American Economic Review becomes Am. Econ. Rev.

Citing a type of authority not explicitly discussed in the Bluebook

  • The Bluebook recommends following an analogous form of authority (see page 2).
  • If applicable, consult rule 17 for unpublished and forthcoming materials.
  • When all else fails, check to see if someone else has cited the authority or a similar authority. Limit the search to journals published by the schools that author the Bluebook (Harvard, Columbia, University of Pennsylvania, Yale).

Citing Electronic Sources

While the 18th edition of the Bluebook has somewhat relaxed the rules regarding electronic sources, the editors of the Bluebook still frown upon the use of electronic sources for many types of materials.

The rule "requires the use and citation of traditional printed sources, except when...not available in a traditional printed source, or if the traditional source is so obscure that it is practically unavailable".

The rule also clearly indicates a preference for Lexis, Westlaw, or selected other commercial databases over the Internet.

Lexis and Westlaw (rule 18.1):

  • Both services, along with other selected electronic databases, are considered to be reliable and authoritative.
  • Bluebook rule 18 requires citation according to the rules for the printed source with the addition of designations to indicate that the electronic resource was used (Lexis, Westlaw).

Internet (rule 18.2):

  • Elements of Internet citation:
    • Information about the authority cited
      • Follow rules 10-17, 19-21 for the type of authority being cited
      • Follow typeface rule applicable for that type of authority.
      • If the source does not have a print analogue, treat it as an unpublished source.
    • "Available at"
      • Use available at when providing the Internet address as an additional source (like a parallel cite) when it will "substantially improve access to the source cited".
      • Do not use available at or at when the authority is only available on the Internet
    • The URL
      • Long enough for the user to find the document being cited and supplemented by a parenthetical.
      • Use a parenthetical to direct the user, but use the entire URL if the parenthetical would be longer than the URL.
    • Date
      • If the Internet site is provided as a parallel cite, use the date as indicated in the rule for the traditional source.
      • If the Internet is the only source for the information, use the date of the authority as provided on the site or the date when page was last visited, in that order of preference.
  • Examples of the Internet rule

Page maintained by Raquel Ortiz
Last modified: August 2006