Cornelius, John Jesudason
Introduction [1]
John Jesudason Cornelius was a prominent Christian intellectual, a nationalist, a global Indian Methodist, and an ecumenical critic of the relationship between mission and colonialism. His brother, J.C. Kumarappa, is more widely known, particularly because of his closeness to Mahatma Gandhi. Unfortunately, over the course of history, J.J. Cornelius’ memory lies buried within the academic records of the universities he attended, bits and pieces of his interviews in New York Times archives, and the mention of his doctoral dissertation at Columbia University. Cornelius fulfilled the role of an Indian Christian nationalist of the 1920s, who during his stay in the United States, endeavored to defend the Indian nationalistic movement and Indian culture. At a time when there seems to be an inclination towards an academic and media rhetoric that Indian Christians played a minor role in the Indian independence movement, Cornelius’ life and legacy prove otherwise. This article is an attempt to present a brief biographical sketch, based on scant archival materials, of his early years in America and his role as a bridge figure between the West and the East and a champion of Indian nationalism.
Childhood
It is unclear when John Jesudason Cornelius was born and where his childhood was spent. We know that he was one of the brothers of Joseph Cornelius Kumarappa, popularly known as Gandhi’s Economist. From Kumarappa’s biography, we may assume that J.J. Cornelius might have also been born in Tanjore (modern-day Thanjavur, in the state of Tamil Nadu, South India). “Cornelius” was the English name their paternal grandfather had taken and their father – “an officer in the colonial civil service” – always used.[2] Their mother was a pious Christian who actively took part in raising four sons – three of whom, including John Jesudason Cornelius, got their Ph.D. abroad.[3]
Identifying the Two Brothers
Unfortunately, and erroneously, the two brothers – John Jesudason Cornelius and Joseph Cornelius (Chelladurai) Kumarappa – have on occasions been cited or presumed to be one and the same person.[4] This seems to have occurred because substantial academic work has been done on J.C. Kumarappa due to his closer proximity to Mahatma Gandhi. This has implied that John Jesudason Cornelius has retreated into the pages of history. Documentary evidence confirm that both were two distinct and hugely popular personalities in their public careers. Strong evidence comes from Mark Lindley’s J.C. Kumarappa: Mahatma Gandhi’s Economist as to their distinct identities. Lindley mentions that Kumarappa’s eldest brother got his Ph.D. from New York and had invited Kumarappa to New York.[5] This “eldest brother” evidently was John Jesudason Cornelius. How do we know this? Mark Lindley, while talking about the “eldest brother” in his book, mentions,
“An article of 21 July 1928 in a leading Indian newspaper (The Hindu) has the headings, “the Ku Klux Klanism in America / An Aspect of Protestant Christianity / By Dr. J. Cornelius, M.A. (Harvard), M.A., Ph.D. (Teachers College, Columbia).””[6]
In comparison, an entry in a 1929 Bulletin of the United States Department of the Interior reads,
“Cornelius, John Jesudason. Rabindranath Tagore: India’s schoolmaster. Doctoral thesis, 1928. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. “A study of Tagore’s experiment in the Indianization of education in the light of India’s history. Part II deals with Tagore’s education theory and practice.”[7]
Academic and Professional Career
John Jesudason Cornelius held degrees from Ohio Wesleyan University, Boston University (listed as a graduate from the School of Theology in 1913), Harvard University, and Columbia University. He also worked as a professor at Lucknow University, India. In 1924, he was a delegate to the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church at Springfield, Massachusetts. In 1926, he was a delegate to the 19th World Conference of the Young Men’s Christian Association at Helsingfors. He also served as a special lecturer at the Williamstown Institute of Politics in 1925 and was a member of the Institute of International Politics in Geneva in 1926.[8] His academic scholarship and political activism seem to have gone hand in hand.
Cornelius’ Writings and Thoughts
Cornelius’ Advocacy for East in the West
Several of the public forums that J.J. Cornelius was invited to in the 1920s dealt with the issue of the Asian presence in the United States. The 1920s were a time of much antagonism against Asian immigrants to the US. Galen Fisher’s chapter on “Relations Between the Occidental and Oriental Peoples in the Pacific Coast of North America,” published as a part of the International Missionary Council’s dossier briefly traces the history of “Oriental” immigration into the United States and Canada. Japanese immigration had risen rapidly between 1900 and 1908 and between 1910-1923 “a large number of Japanese women” had come to America to marry Japanese settlers or their sons.”[9] In 1924, the American Immigration Act debarred Japanese immigration just like previous legislation had done with Chinese immigrants.[10]
Within these heated ideological and political debates over immigration and race relations, J.J. Cornelius frequently talked of the hatred and bitterness created by the First World War[11] and emphasized the need for better understanding and international friendship between peoples.[12] At the Conference on International Relations from the Christian Point of View organized by the Commission on International Justice and Goodwill of the Federal Council of Churches in July 1925, Cornelius spoke of the East as a “spiritual civilization” that was “non-aggressive in character.” He was replying to the question, “Is Asia a menace to World Peace?” For him, the West had sought to conquer foreign lands with physical might, however, the East had confidence in its spiritual might to oppose the strongest nations “for the sake of their rights.”[13] He called for nations like Australia that had kept out “colored” races from their territories to give up the “dog in the manger” attitude and allow for an “international adjustment of territory” so the “crowded populations of the East may find an outlet somewhere.” Cornelius also questioned the commercial exploitation of Africa and of Asia, particularly the recent opium conference (probably referring to the International Opium Conference held in Geneva from November 1924 to February 1925).[14]
Cornelius and Western Missions
J.J. Cornelius was quite critical of Western presence and Western missionaries in Asia. During his talk at the Conference on International Relations from the Christian Point of View in July 1925, he called the West “self-appointed God’s servants of civilization” and “heartless exploiters.”[15] His assertions here are significant because he was speaking at a conference largely attended by delegates of the Federal Council of Churches. Taking a jibe at the Western missionary work in Asia, he said,
“When the world is made a paradise for the white man to live in he is happy but when the colored peoples of the world begin to feel that even in their own homes they are made slaves by the white man, who pretends to be God’s messenger of goodwill, peace and civilization, and begin to assert themselves, at that very moment they become perils and they are a menace to world peace. The time has come for a new code of morals in international relations.”[16]
However, his criticisms were often grounded on a theology of Christian social order. During a convention of the foreign missions of the United States and Canada held in Washington DC on January 29, 1925, he remarked that Christians in America needed to move towards Christ, provide leadership to the world, uplift humanity, and bring about a Christian social order. The objective of the convention was to distinguish the difference between Christianizing and “Westernizing” the East.[17] President Calvin Coolidge in his opening speech urged missionaries “to carry the best of Christianity to other cultures and to counteract the evils of Western civilization by bringing back to America the best of other cultures.” Cornelius’ attendance at this conference is significant firstly because, “eighty-five mission organizations, eleven missionary training schools, and 3,419 delegates attended” the convention,[18] and globally recognized Christian leaders like E. Stanley Jones, John R. Mott, and J.H. Oldham were in the audience. Secondly, delegates at the conference shared an optimistic vision of a united post-war world, a zeal for missionary internationalism, and the belief in an “active promotion of indigenization in non-Western Christianity.”[19] Cornelius’ staunch belief in Indian nationalism found echoes in the voices of those who talked about the relationship between nationalism and internationalism – particularly, one speaker who stated that a “…major problem of the day was in harmonizing nationalism with the Christian ideal of worldwide unity.”[20]
Cornelius and Stoddard
Cornelius was a formidable Indian Christian voice in American public and political forums and wrote with much brevity. On January 10, 1926, the New York Times[21] covered a fascinating debate titled “The Eastern Menace to Western Civilization” hosted at a public forum on the issue of race hatred and East-West debate. The occasion was a Foreign Policy Dinner hosted by the Foreign Policy Association, a non-profit organization, at Hotel Astor. The years prior to and after the First World War had witnessed a growing debate over race, interracial relations, and immigration in the United States. In 1916, Madison Grant, a lawyer, writer, and zoologist, published his The Passing of a Great Race: On the Racial Basis of European History, which carried strong racial undertones of Northern European racial superiority and warned against an increasing number of immigration from southern and eastern Europe to the US. Grant had come up with the theory of the “Nordic race” – a form of “scientific racism” supporting racial superiority based on “empirical evidence ” – and had actively participated in framing restrictive immigration laws (Immigration Act of 1924, Asian Exclusion Act, and National Origins Act) in the United States. Towing Grant’s line of argument, Lothrop Stoddard[22] – a Harvard University graduate – popular among the public as an American historian, political scientist, and journalist, had written several books on scientific racism – The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy (1920),[23] The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under Man (1922),[24] Racial Realities in Europe (1924),[25] Scientific Humanism (1926), Clashing Tides of Color (1935). Apart from the last two works, the 1000-odd people in the audience at the Foreign Policy Dinner that evening were aware of his views and theories on race.
That evening leading the charge against Stoddard was John Jesudason Cornelius, himself a Boston University graduate. He declared,
“We are living in a war-torn world…and the call at this time must be the call of cooperation of the East and West to save humanity. After the World War and its war psychology, everywhere hatred and bitterness increased by leaps and bounds and we are living today in the midst of it. Under these conditions Dr. Stoddard is adding fuel to the fire. In my opinion, the menace to Western civilization is not so much the East as Madison Grant, Lothrop Stoddard and those who follow in their train.”[26]
Cornelius went on to criticize Stoddard and called him the real “menace to humanity because… [he] will bring a war of color which will be even more deadly and disastrous than the World War.”[27] As the evening progressed, the debate between Cornelius and Stoddard grew hot – the air supple with disagreement between the two . Stoddard responded to Cornelius by saying that “a war-worn West was facing an increasingly self-conscious and self-assertive East…. To avert the impending crisis…exact knowledge was needed…”[28] Cornelius respectfully agreed to some of Stoddard’s assertions but contended that the West was itself to be blamed for the problem. For Cornelius, the self-assertion of the East was in response to European aggression and exploitation and only a means of self-preservation. Western superiority was a “superiority of force,” whereas Eastern superiority was “shown by humility” and was “reflected by the teachings and policies in India of M.K. Gandhi.” Cornelius’ talk was well received by the audience and was followed by considerable heckling directed at Stoddard. Someone in the audience asked Stoddard whether he had a single word to define western civilization in response to the word “humility” which Dr. Cornelius had used to define Eastern civilization. Stoddard responded, “Truth.”[29]
Cornelius and Mayo
In 1927, Katherine Mayo, an American historian and political writer, published Mother India, a book that garnered much criticism within India. Mayo was an advocate of American nativism, a political policy that criticized non-white and Catholic immigration to the United States. Mother India drew the attention of readers in England, the United States, and India, and over 50 books were published directly in response to her work, including a movie[30] of the same name produced in 1957 as a counter to Mayo’s vilification of India. Her book, claiming to be a hygienic commentary of India’s public health problems, questioned the plight of the “untouchables” in Indian society, raised the situation of millions of child brides in India, and the premature movement towards India’s independence.[31] It was here that J.J. Cornelius emerged on the scenes with an article titled “India’s Degradation Laid to British Misrule,” challenging the charges made by Mayo and calling her “blind to facts.”[32] Marouf Hasian Jr. and Anne Bialowas have termed it as “one of the most balanced attacks on Mayo’s evocative work…”[33] Cornelius wrote,
“A case in point is the recent attempt made by Miss Katherine Mayo to increase the available sources of information about India. Deploring the utter inadequacy of the average American’s knowledge of that country, she ushered into the world her book, Mother India, wherein she records the results of her laborious investigation into Indian conditions and contributes the information that every child in India is brought up in an atmosphere over-saturated with sex, that every Hindu awaits the opportunity to violate the chastity of a woman irrespective of kinship, and that the Hindus as a race develop to be sexually reckless.”[34]
Cornelius was a vocal critic of British colonial policies in India and asserted that the British were responsible for the region’s poverty. Cornelius lauded India’s support of the British Army in the First World War despite a sense of growing dissatisfaction within the country over the British policy of the partition of Bengal in 1905.
“Despite her dissatisfaction, India not only remained loyal to the end of the conflict, but enthusiastically aided Great Britain with men and money. None of the self-governing Dominions made a greater contribution…In men alone India provided 100,000 more than the total number of soldiers sent by all colonies put together. Poverty-stricken though she was, India contributed nearly $500,000,000 as special gift to meet the expenses of Great Britain’s war…”[35]
Decrying Mayo’s charge that India was “weeping over her own futility,”[36] Cornelius emphasized that India was on its way to achieving full control of the Government – in its first stage of agitation India was able to win herself “a feeble and muzzled representation in the Government.” More agitation granted more freedom but no representation in administration, and some more agitation got India more responsibility in administration. Cornelius lauded Gandhi’s emphasis on nonviolence and his leadership as a moral power that “eliminated bombs and assassinations from organized politics.” He declared that until full control was achieved political unrest would continue.[37]
Marouf Hasian Jr. and Anne Bialowas have argued that Mayo, an imperial apologist, considered herself a voice pleading for mercy for Indian womanhood and made gendered nationalistic[38] arguments to unite Westerners who were interesting in saving women from being persecuted by the Hindu religion.[39] Mayo’s efforts to present white women as saviors and imperialists who helped downtrodden sisters[40] in India did not go well with Cornelius, who countered that there were plenty of indigenous efforts being undertaken in India to reform the society. He wrote,
“The efforts to improve the condition of women are no less hopeful. Home for Women, like Seva Sadhan of Poona, have been founded in many cities and towns to teach helpless women and widows cottage industries, nursing and sewing and also to train capable women for teaching social service…. Social reform organizations… are striving to abolish the purdah system, to increase Homes for Women, to provide technical education, to dissuade parents from giving their daughters in marriage before the age of sixteen and to promote women’s education…”[41]
Mayo’s criticism of Indian society, its religion, and its nationalistic movement clearly agitated Cornelius who, writing in New York, wrote this 8-page article providing a well-balanced critique of her assertions. In his criticism he accepted her arguments to a certain extent but went to show that she had erred in understanding India, its social customs, and the nationalistic movement.
Cornelius and Indian Nationalism
In his defense of India and its society against Mayo and in several of his public appearances, J.J. Cornelius presented a strong case for the need for the nationalistic movement. In his “India’s degradation Laid to British Misrule,” Cornelius questioned why it was not until 1892 that sufficient representation was given to Indians in the Government. He questioned the divisive politics followed by Lord Curzon, who had divided Bengal on religious lines, and credited it with the reason for fanning into flame the spirit of nationalism. He further criticized the broken promises of the British colonial powers after the First World War to allow India the right to “self-determination.” Instead of keeping their promises, the British resorted to numerous arrests of national leaders, including Gandhi. Cornelius was sufficiently grounded in his knowledge of India’s politics as a Professor of Philosophy at Lucknow University and raised concerns about British brutality in Amritsar in April 1919. He also seems to be well versed in the economic conditions of the country and wrote about agriculture, the cotton industry, rural reconstruction, etc. Criticizing Mayo, Cornelius accused her of being “malicious in her treatment of Indian national aspiration.”[42]
It is important to note that Christian publications and intellectuals stood in support of Cornelius’ arguments against right-wing intellectuals like Stoddard and Mayo. In “Nationalism in India’s Life,” published as a chapter in Milton Stauffer’s An Indian Approach to India, a Christian publication, Cornelius bridged the connection between India’s nationalist movement and religious revival. Highly appreciative of Hinduism as a way of life, Cornelius agreed that Indian nationalism appeared as a religious renaissance.[43] He was optimistic about the future of the movement and was full of praise for the efforts being made toward social reform and the national regeneration of India.[44] The spirit of nationalism was the key to the industrial revolution, agricultural improvement, growth of the steel and textile industry, cotton and mill industries, etc.[45] Cornelius advocated for Creative Nationalism, a form of nationalism that focuses on socio-economic reforms and development. He saw its influence in the field of education in India. In support of the vernacular, he criticized Western learning that displaced the vernacular and denationalized the Indian students. Citing new efforts at the indigenization of education, he lauded attempts made towards blending Vedic culture with Western culture.[46]He was critical of the British government’s policy towards education, particularly the education of women. He felt that the government had miserly funded popular education in India, and particularly neglected the education of girls.[47] He was in support of India’s nationalism because he saw in it the potential to revive education, industries, Indian art, politics, society, etc. He firmly believed that nationalism would regenerate India – politically provide for India’s self-determination, purify India’s religious systems, bridge the gap between Western culture and Eastern ideals, provide a middle ground between the isolated artisan and industrial machines, emancipate women, uplift the depressed classes, ensure the physical development of the Indian race, and lead India towards a more fraternal internationalism.[48]
Conclusion
The lack of sufficient biographical information on the life of John Jesudason Cornelius hinders from creating a better timeline of his life, career, and writings. What is available are a few of his articles, a very brief view of his early life, and news articles about his public appearances. Unlike his younger brother, J.C. Kumarappa who rose to national fame as “Gandhi’s Economist,” J.J. Cornelius has been less known within India and Indian Christianity. The extant sources portray him as an Indian Christian who was an emphatic believer in India’s national movement and a vocal critic of British imperialism and Western supremacy within politics as well as in missionary circles. He was an Indian Christian nationalist who advocated for international friendship and internationalism, a bridge-builder during a crucial time of East and West relations.
by Abhishek P. John
Bibliography
Cornelius, John Jesudason. “Nationalism in India’s Life and Thought,” in An Indian Approach to India, edited by Milton Stauffer, 16-51. New York: Missionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada, 1927.
The New York Times. “Open Church Conference: Prominent Men Will Talk Today.” July 20, 1925.
The New York Times. “Say Christianity Sweeps Far East: But Missionaries at Washington Conference Warn Against “Westernizing.” January 30, 1925.
The New York Times. “Debate on Menace to Western World: Cornelius Assails Stoddard for Stirring Race Hatreds in Predicting a Crisis.” January 10, 1926.
United States Department of the Interior. Bibliography of Research Studies in Education 1927-28. Bulletin, 1929, No. 36. Compiled by Edith A. Wright. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1930.
The Star of Zion. “Is Asia a Menace to World Peace?” July 30, 1925.
Cornelius, J.J. “India’s degradation laid to British misrule.” Current History 27, no. 3 (1927): 362-366.
Marouf Hasian Jr. and Anne Bialowas, “Gendered Nationalism, the Colonial Narrative, and the Rhetorical Significance of the Mother India controversy,” Communication Quarterly 57, no. 4 (October – December 2009): 470.
“Miss Mayo answers ‘Mother India’ Critics,” The New York Times, October 7, 1927, https://nyti.ms/3w3P7DP
Lindley, Mark. J.C. Kumarappa: Mahatma Gandhi’s Economist. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, 2007.
[1] This article was published in the Doon Theological Journal. See, Abhishek P. John, “John Jesudason Cornelius: A Forgotten Indian Christian Nationalist,” Doon Theological Journal 18, no. 2 (2021): 81-93.
[2] Mark Lindley, J.C. Kumarappa: Mahatma Gandhi’s Economist (Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, 2007), 4.
[3] Mark Lindley, J.C. Kumarappa, 4.
[4] Many articles and blogposts make the error of stating that J.C. Kumarappa’s original name was John Jesudason Cornelius.
[5] Mark Lindley, J.C. Kumarappa, 6. Kumarappa, like his brother J.J. Cornelius, got his degrees in the U.S. but worked with Gandhi extensively for 20 years. Kumarappa was the one to coin the phrase “Gandhian economic thought.”
[6] Mark Lindley, J.C. Kumarappa, 6.
[7] United States Department of the Interior. Bibliography of Research Studies in Education 1927-28. Bulletin, 1929, No. 36. Compiled by Edith A. Wright. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1930, 3.
[8] John Jesudason Cornelius, “Nationalism in India’s Life and Thought,” in An Indian Approach to India, ed. Milton Stauffer (New York: Missionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada, 1927), vii.
[9] Galen M. Fisher, “Relations Between the Occidental and Oriental Peoples in the Pacific Coast of North America,” in The Christian Mission in the Light of Race Conflict (New York City: International Missionary Council, 1928), 3:118.
[10] Galen M. Fisher, “Relations Between the Occidental and Oriental Peoples,” 119.
[11] A concern he raised again during his debate with Lothrop Stoddard in January 1926.
[12] John Jesudason Cornelius, “India’s degradation,” 368.
[13] “Is Asia a Menace to World Peace?” Star of Zion 49, no. 31 (July 30, 1925): 1.
[14] “Is Asia a Menace to World Peace?” Star of Zion 49, no. 31 (July 30, 1925): 1.
[15] “Is Asia a Menace to World Peace?” Star of Zion 49, no. 31 (July 30, 1925): 1.
[16] “Is Asia a Menace to World Peace?” Star of Zion 49, no. 31 (July 30, 1925): 1.
[17] “Say Christianity Sweeps Far East,” The New York Times, January 30, 1925.
[18] Dana L. Robert, “The First Globalization: The Internationalization of the Protestant Missionary Movement Between the World Wars,” The International Bulletin of Missionary Research 26, no. 2 (April 2002): 52.
[19] Dana L. Robert, “The First Globalization,” 54.
[20] Dana L. Robert, “The First Globalization,” 54.
[21] New York Times reported of another occasion on January 11 when John Langdon Davies attacked Lothrop Stoddard at the weekly forum of the Community Church, Thirty-Fourth Street and Park Avenue, criticizing his views of Nordic superiority during a lecture titled, “A Nordic on the Nordic Myth.” Davies was a member of the British Labor Party. (“Nordic Superiority is called a Myth,” New York Times, January 11, 1926, 21.)
[22] Lothrop Stoddard was a popular American writer, a disciple of Madison Grant, famous for his The Rising Tide of Color, who can well be considered the poster child of the right-wing intellectuals in the West who represented the social anxiety and pessimism of their time about the waning influence of the white race, a fear prevalent in the post-First World War age. (https://counter-currents.com/2019/09/the-legacy-of-lothrop-stoddard/, accessed August 11, 2022)
[23] https://archive.org/details/risingtideofcolo00stod/page/n9/mode/2up?view=theater (accessed August 11, 2022)
[24] https://archive.org/details/revoltagainstciv00stod (accessed August 11, 2022)
[25] https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.536181/mode/2up (accessed August 11, 2022)
[26] “Debate on Menace to Western World,” The New York Times, January 10, 1926.
[27] “Debate on Menace to Western World,” The New York Times, January 10, 1926.
[28] “Debate on Menace to Western World,” The New York Times, January 10, 1926.
[29] “Debate on Menace to Western World,” The New York Times, January 10, 1926.
[30] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ss7lc5kB0BY (accessed May 8, 2022)
[31] Marouf Hasian Jr. and Anne Bialowas, “Gendered Nationalism, the Colonial Narrative, and the Rhetorical Significance of the Mother India controversy,” Communication Quarterly 57, no. 4 (October – December 2009): 470.
[32] John Jesudason Cornelius, “India’s degradation,” 364.
[33] Marouf Hssian Jr. and Anne Bialowas, “Gendered Nationalism,” 478.
[34] John Jesudason Cornelius, “India’s degradation laid to British misrule,” Current History 27, no. 3 (1927): 361.
[35] John Jesudason Cornelius, “India’s degradation laid to British misrule,” Current History 27, no. 3 (1927): 361.
[36] Katherine Mayo, Mother India (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1927), 19.
[37] John Jesudason Cornelius, “India’s degradation,” 364.
[38] Marouf Hasian Jr. and Anne Bialowas define gendered nationalism as the use of “paternalistic figurations that suture together particular familiar images with political critiques of oppositional movement.” (Marouf Hssian Jr. and Anne Bialowas, “Gendered Nationalism,” 471)
[39] “Miss Mayo answers ‘Mother India’ Critics,” The New York Times, October 7, 1927, https://nyti.ms/3w3P7DP
[40] Marouf Hasian Jr. and Anne Bialowas, “Gendered Nationalism,” 473.
[41] John Jesudason Cornelius, “India’s degradation,” 364.
[42] John Jesudason Cornelius, “India’s degradation,” 366-368.
[43] John Jesudason Cornelius, “Nationalism in India’s Life,” in An Indian Approach to India, ed. Milton Stauffer (New York: Missionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada, 1927), 27.
[44] John Jesudason Cornelius, “Nationalism in India’s Life,” 31.
[45] John Jesudason Cornelius, “Nationalism in India’s Life,” 40-43.
[46] John Jesudason Cornelius, “Nationalism in India’s Life,” 44-45.
[47] John Jesudason Cornelius, “Nationalism in India’s Life,” 47.
[48] John Jesudason Cornelius, “Nationalism in India’s Life,” 49-50.