At all times, humans have recurred to religion, magical and mythical beliefs to explain
why certain things are and should be the way they are. So for example, the Dogon and
Bambara cosmology explains the practice of circumcision by saying, among other things,
that it is a mechanism devised to rid boys and girls of their "native androgyny"
or "dual soul,"(1) thereby stabilizing and
allowing them to procreate. In other words, "Male circumcision and female excision
are necessary to establish the sex of the adult without question" (Taoko, 1975, p.
14). Another religious reason given is the need to pay a blood-debt to Mother-Earth
(Griaule, 1965). The Isoko and Urhobo of the Delta State, Nigeria, circumcise women during
the advanced stages of their pregnancy because of the legendary belief that, if left
uncircumcised, "the clitoris will cause symbolic or spiritual injury to the
baby."(2)
Whereas many African myths and legends are supportive of circumcision and many other
cultural practices, there are very few, if any, creation myths that justify the widespread
custom of polygyny. Of course, there are many proverbs about polygamy and co-wives. But
proverbs do not have the same weight as myths. Indeed, the former are humans’
sayings, whereas the latter are sacred literatures, so to speak. Numerous African creation
myths develop the idea that monogyny was the original practice among creator-gods and
among the first human couples. After reading numerous creation myths, I have identified
five of them which substantiate this claim. These myths are representative of five
geographic areas of sub-Saharan Africa, that is, the northern, southern, eastern, western,
and central Africa.
With the exception for The Plant of life, a Nyamwezi story, Tanzania, in which Shida
Matunda created all things as well as two women whom he took as wives, virtually all
married divinities were monogamists. Furthermore, in my research I came across only one
instance in which a God gave the original man, Moon, more than a wife, Morningstar and
Eveningstar; but Moon was given the second wife only after God had called the first one to
go and live in the sky. Consequently, I contend that African religions are not the
authentic foundation of polygyny, or the practice of having more than one wife or female
mate at one time. What is more, the pursuit of personal immortality through procreation
could possibly be a religious reason for polygyny. Immortality is a noble goal for every
human being. The achievement of that goal through polygyny, however, discriminates against
women. It is the highest expression of sexual Darwinism, male’s Hobbesian egoism,
androcentrism and will to power. A sexist pursuit of immortality cannot be a plausible
religious practice. Consequently, polygyny is not only a male’s post-original sin,
but also a social and moral evil. It must be dismantled through education and
sociopolitical commitment to human rights.
I. The Original Monogyny and Equality of Sexes
The term ‘monogyny’ means the practice or custom of being married to one
person at a time. By ‘original monogyny’ I mean the divine and the original
man’s custom of being married to one goddess or one wife at a time. I prefer the term
‘monogyny’ to ‘monogamy’ for five reasons. First, the male divinity
tends to be the dominant character in almost all creation myths. He is the one who marries
the female divinity. Secondly, in these myths, the male is usually created first, and
sometimes he has to create and to name the female whom he then marries. Thirdly, in
Lingala, a language spoken in the Congos, ‘kobala’ means "to marry";
"mobali" means not only "male", "man", "husband",
but also and incidentally "he who marries". On the other hand, "mwasi"
means "female", "woman", "wife", but it does not mean
"she who marries". Fourthly, every monogyny is a monogamy but not every monogamy
is a monogyny. Fifthly and finally, "monogyny" contrasts with
"polygyny" better than "monogamy." Despite the apparently passive role
that the Goddess or the woman plays in the original couple, it is usually a happy couple.
The anteriority of maleness has nothing to do with masculine superiority. Usually, the
idea of inferiority is expressed only in relation to the original sin, in which the woman
is depicted as the ‘weak sex,’ and as the cause of death or of the loss of the
original immortality. However, this is irrelevant for the present work perspective. My
primary intention is to stress the original equality based upon the original monogyny, and
to show that the actual practice of polygyny is a cultural one. It is sinful, because it
is the male"s challenge to the original monogyny.
A. The Original Divine Monogyny: One God, One Goddess: Numerous African creation myths
suggest that creation-gods were monogynists. Here are three of these myths:
1. From Death and the Creator, a Kono story, Guinea, west Africa, we learn that: At the
beginning there was nothing. In the darkness of the world lived a, Death, with his wife
and only daughter. In order to be able to live somewhere, Sa created an immense sea of
mud, by means of magic. One day Alatangana, the God, appeared, and visited Sa in his dirty
abode. Shocked by this state of affairs, Alatangana reproached Sa fiercely, saying that he
had created an inhabitable place, without plants, without living beings, without light.
To remedy these faults, Alatangana set out first of all to solidify the dirt. He thus
created the earth, but the earth still seemed to him too sterile and too sad, and so he
created vegetation and animals of all kinds. Sa, who was satisfied with these improvements
of his dwelling place, entertained great friendship for Alatangana and offered him much
hospitality. After sometime Alatangana, who was a bachelor, asked his host for the hand of
his only daughter. But the father found many excuses and in the end flatly refused to
satisfy his demand. However, Alatangana came to a secret agreement with the young girl. He
married her and in order to escape the wrath of Sa they fled to a remote corner of the
earth. There they lived happily and bore many children: seven boys and seven
girls—four white boys and girls and three black boys and girls (Beier, 1988, pp.
3-4).
2. In The Pitcher and the Basket, an Issansu story, Tanzania, east Africa, the sun
(husband) and the moon (wife) are referred to as the original (divine) couple. Reference
is also made to the original human couple, Kiula (husband) and Isamba (wife).
3. In The Disobedience of Man, an Efik Story, Nigeria, north-western Africa, Abassi,
the supreme God, is said to have had a wife called Atai (Ibidem, pp. 60-61). The divine
monogyny was also practiced by the first male.
B. Monogyny Among the Original Human Couples: One Man, One Woman. The following myths
indicate that the first man (male) was a monogynist.
1. From How Moon Fathered the World, a Wakaranga story, Zimbabwe, southern Africa, we
learn that:
"God made a man whom he called Moon. Moon first lived at the bottom of the
sea. Moon wanted to go and live on the earth, but God warned him: Life on the earth is
hard and you will regret it. But Moon went to the earth. In those days the earth was void
and inhabited. There were no trees, no plants, no animals. Moon was unhappy and wept. God
said: I warned you, but you did not listen. Nevertheless I will help you. You shall have a
wife, who will live with you for two years. God sent Morningstar to live with Moon.
[...]during the night Moon[...]had intercourse with Morningstar. The following morning he
saw that Morningstar"s body had swelled up. And she gave birth to trees, grasses and
all kinds of plants until the entire world was green. [...]. Moon and Morningstar lived a
life of plenty. They ate seeds and roots. But when the two years were up, God called
Morningstar away and sent her to live in the sky. Moon wept for eight days. Then God gave
him a second wife and he said: She will live with you for two years. But at the end of
that time you must die. Eveningstar went and lived with Moon for two years. Moon slept
with Eveningstar and on the following day her belly swelled up. She gave birth to goats,
sheep and cows. On the second day she gave birth to antelopes and birds. But on the third
day she gave birth to boys and girls[...]." (Ibid., pp. 15-17).
2. In The Revolt Against God, a Fang story, Gabon, central Africa, it is said:
"At the beginning of things, when there was nothing, God was and he was called Nzame.
Nzame made everything, including the first man, Fam— which means power. Fam became
arrogant and stopped worshiping Nzame. His punishment was death. Then Nzame created the
second man and father of all. He called himSekume. Nzame did not want to leave him alone,
so he said, "Make yourself a woman from a tree."
Sekume made himself a woman and she walked and he called her Mbongwe.[...] (Ibid., pp.
18-22).
Strictly based upon the aforementioned myths, it makes sense to speculate that
"one God, one goddess and one man, one woman was the creator-god(s)" and the
original humans’modus vivendi.
C. Implications of the Original Monogyny
In many African creation myths, as in Genesis, the first book of the bible, gods create
humans in their image and likeness.(3) This means that the
monogynous gods expect all humans to be like them in terms of their conjugal practices. In
other words, the divine monogyny is supposed to become the humans" way of life,
unless exceptional circumstances—for example, shortage of men or women—require
polygamy. Of course, a perfect equality among sexes implies that polygamy refers to both
polygyny and polyandry, none of which is an ideal marital arrangement. Unfortunately, when
one talks about polygamy in Africa today, reference is almost automatically made to its
polygynous form. One is so used to this state of affairs that one naturally believes that
polygamy and polygyny are synonymous. One might even believe that polygyny is a kind of
divine gift to men only. Whereas many Westerners conceive of myths as something
diametrically opposed to reality, many traditional Africans hardly discriminate between
myth and reality. For them, myth is reality. But if this were always the case, then why is
it that monogyny is not seen as the right thing to do, since numerous creation myths talk
about creator-gods and original humans, most of whom practiced monogamy? One has the
impression that for the patriarchal African society, not every myth is reality. However,
some myths are or become reality as long as they serve the best interests of men. Given
the legendary religiosity and/or spirituality of the African people, there should be some
sort of religious or at least pseudo-religious bases for polygyny. These bases are likely
to be, among others, some African conception of immortality.
D. Procreation, Immortality and Polygyny
Unlike western thought, in which the concept of "immortality" basically
refers to the soul, African thought seems to conceive of immortality in terms of
reincarnation/rebirth or the continued existence of the dead among the living. The living
persons have the "innate wish to exist for ever." Nevertheless, since death is
unavoidable, they prolong their existence as living persons in their descendants. That is
why in his book, La Philosophie-Bantoue Rwandaise de l"Etre, Alexis Kagame
writes that for the muntu or the human being, to perpetuate oneself through reproduction
becomes the goal of his or her being in the world (1956, p. 148). Only when the ancestors
have no further living descendants are they completely dead. In this sense, polygyny is
seen as having a spiritual value inasmuch as it is "pleasing to the ancestors"
(Kilbride, 1994, p. 110). It follows that to a great extent, immortality is achieved via
procreation.
Moreover, in Africa, elders depend on their numerous children to provide security in
their old age. Consequently, in these male-dominated societies, men believe to guarantee
such security and deathlessness through polygyny. This custom has been justified by means
of proverbs and sayings.
II. The Cultural Argument: African Proverbs and Sayings on Women and Polygyny
In Africa, oral traditions are filled with proverbs and sayings on polygyny and
co-wives. But polygyny is a controversial cultural issue among Africans. Not all African
men are polygynists and not all proverbs and sayings are supportive of polygyny. Pursuant
to African wisdom, I would like to show the controversial character of polygyny in a
proverbial exchange between two African sages, Songolo and Pakala, who proverbially voice
their views on this conjugal custom. The former supports the practice and the latter is
against it.
Songolo: To have one wife is to be one-eyed. (Luba proverb, Democratic Republic of
Congo—DRC)
Pakala: A man with one wife is chief among the unmarried. (Ganda proverb, Uganda)
Songolo: A man whose only wife falls ill, gets thin. (Ganda) If you marry two,
you"ll die all the younger. (Luba)
Pakala: Two wives, two pots of poison. (Gikuyu proverb, Kenya) It is hunger that killed
the man with many wives. (Ashanti proverb, Ghana, West Africa)
Songolo: Only one wife, only one jar in one"s basket. (Yaka, DRC)
Pakala: There is nothing but poverty in polygamy. (Akan, Ghana) A thousand wives, a
thousand palavers. (Ashanti)
Songolo: Beat the bad wife with a new wife. (Nobiin, Sudan)
Pakala: The first one makes the home. (Tonga, Zambia)
Despite the awareness of problems inherent to polygyny, many men are not ready to give
it up. They would use proverbs and tradition to justify their practice. The problem is
that the argument from the common belief is often fallacious. Additionally, the appeal to
proverbs is an ad verecundiam argument, or a false appeal to authority. This is the case
because of disagreements among proverbs on polygyny. Finally, proverbs are human sayings
and as such some of them are wrong. They are dogmatic formulas, often authored by men
(males), to foster their hegemonic masculinity. Consequently, although some
traditionalists refer to proverbs to defend polygyny, proverbs fail to provide us with a
sound religious basis for it. If neither creation myths, nor proverbs provide a religious
foundation for polygyny for the above mentioned reasons, then polygyny is a post-original
sin, and/or at least a social and moral evil.
III. Polygyny as an Evil
A. Polygyny as "Male"s Post-Original Sin"
The original sin is usually explained as the human desire to be God, revolt against
God, disobedience, etc, all of which are said to have been initiated by the original
woman. For this reason, women are also referred to as the ‘temptresses,’
‘weak’ or ‘second sex.’ But if it is true that God wanted one Adam and
one Eve, not one Adam or Sekume and three Eves or Mbongwes, thereby affirming the equality
of sexes, then polygyny is a cultural practice that violates the will of God(s). Anything
that violates the will of God(s) is sinful. Therefore polygyny is sinful. It is the most
sexist "post-original sin", because through it, man (= the male) rejects the
original equality of sexes, which was expressed via the original monogyny. Through it, men
transform the so-called battle of sexes into misogyny.
B. Polygyny as a Social Evil
Polygyny is also a social evil. It is the means by which men subjugate women, thereby
exerting sexual/social Darwinism. It treats women as inferior beings, sexual objects and
commercial commodities. In polygynist societies—with exception for Muslim societies,
where the number of wives is limited to four—wealthy men can have as many women as
they want, as long as they can afford the dowry. Some of those societies perform
clitoridectomy or infibulation in order to hopefully control women"s sexuality or
infidelity.
C. Polygyny as a ‘Necessary’ Moral Evil
Polygyny is a form of violence and injustice perpetrated against women. It is at odds
with the Kantian categorical imperative relative to the respect for the person (Kant,
1959).(4) Through polygyny, men treat women as means to
their own ends such as progeny, "immortality", wealth, social status, and of
course, sexual gratification. Some polygynists believe, however, that polygyny is a
necessary evil, mainly for three ‘moral’ reasons. First, it is said to cut down
on male infidelity and to allow greater sexual equality in terms of extramarital affairs
than is the case with monogamy. Secondly, it is believed to be a better alternative to
prostitution due to the imbalance in the sex ratio (Mbiti 1989, 139). Of course, the first
so-called moral argument is androcentric or masculinist. Additionally, it claims to solve
a moral problem—the male infidelity—by creating other moral problems, that is,
the use of women as means to an end; and co-wives adultery.
D. Polygyny as Dictatorship and as Sexism
African societies, like many other societies, are still profoundly patriarchal and
sexist. African sexism is as bad as dictatorships that have undermined many countries
socioeconomic development. To fight for equality means (1) to eradicate polygyny; (2) to
help the polygynists understand that their practice is sexist and to realize that the real
man"s sex chromosomes are XY rather than XXY chromosomes; and (3) to strive for equal
educational opportunities for all.
IV. Conclusion: Toward the Dismantlement of Polygyny
As a cultural matter, polygyny can be eradicated not only through antipolygamy campaign
and through education, but also and above all, through legal means, for example,
international Conventions, Declarations, Charters, and Constitutions.
A. International Conventions and Declarations
African countries in which polygyny is practiced have ratified the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. If this Convention is binding,
then the international community"s law enforcement officials, if any, have the right
and the duty to take all the necessary measures that could be conducive to the
dismantlement of polygyny. Indeed, this conjugal practice is a form of discrimination
against women. Undoubtedly, polygyny violates the Declaration on the Elimination of
Violence Against Women, adopted by the United Nations" General Assembly during its
1993 World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna, Austria. As members of the United
Nations, African countries must abide by its Charter. Unarguably, polygyny violates, among
others, articles 1 & 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the
United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. Art. 1 declares that, "All
human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights..." Regarding conjugal
rights, Art. 16 proclaims that, "Men and women of full age, without any limitation
due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They
are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its
dissolution...."
B. The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
In order to safeguard African society against Westerners’ extremist liberal
values, the Organization of the African Unity has ratified the African Charter on Human
and Peoples’ Rights. This document contains articles that could be instrumental in
the antipolygyny campaign and education. For example, article 4 declares that,
"[e]very human being shall be entitled to respect for his life and the integrity of
his person." (Basic Documents, 1987, p. 511)(5)
Obviously, polygyny shows no respect for women. Article 16 proclaims that "[e]very
individual shall have the right to enjoy the best attainable state of physical and mental
health" (Ibidem, p. 513). But jealousy, spousal abuse as well as the abuse of some
wives by their co-wives are serious threats to many women’s physical and mental
health. Article 29 establishes the duty to "preserve and strengthen positive African
cultural values in ... relations with other members of the society" (Ibid., p. 517).
Evidently, polygyny is not a positive value. It is sexist and it is based on men’s
idea of women’s alleged inferiority. Luckily, some African leaders have shown concern
for women’s condition. One of them is Nelson Mandela of South Africa.
C. Mandela’s Constitutional Proposals
Whereas the aforementioned African Charter’s articles could be subject to
different interpretations, the proposals made by Nelson Mandela(6)
are clear. If they are adopted and enforced, they will be a constructive legal document in
terms of women’s conditions. In a speech to the African National Congress
Constitutional Committee Workshop on Gender, Mandela proposed that:
1. The constitution for a new South Africa should unequivocally state that South Africa
should not only be unitary, nonracial, and democratic, but should also be a nonsexist
state
2. All laws which place women in a disadvantageous position should be abolished and be
declared unconstitutional.
3. Constitutionally entrenched criteria and mechanisms should be established to break
through the layers of prejudice and historical inequalities experienced by women.
4. The laws and the constitution of a democratic South Africa should enable women to
articulate their demands, their priorities, and expectations.
5. The constitution should ensure a strong female presence in all decision-making
processes of the new South Africa.
These proposals are plausible, because without women"s representation and
participation in the socioeconomic and political arenas, the struggle for women"s
rights and for the African development will never lead to a definitive victory. In a
nutshell, I have argued that polygyny is a sexist cultural custom that has no genuine
African religious foundation. African creation myths indicate that monogyny was the normal
practice among virtually all African creator-gods and among the first human beings.
Polygyny is a post-original sin committed by men (males). It is a culturally and morally
controversial issue. It undermines the original gender equality as well as the ideal of
equality expressed in the United Nations’ Charter. Consequently, it should be
dismantled through education, commitment to, and a rigorous enforcement of, domestic,
regional, and international laws.
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